Saturday, December 28, 2019

Looking at the Character of Meursault in The Stranger by...

Looking at the Character of Meursault in The Stranger by Camus In Camus’s â€Å"The Stranger† I will be discussing how the character Meursault utilizes all of the six existential themes: Freedom, Contingency, Individuality, Existence, Reflection, and Passion. I will also address how Meursault utilizes the existential givens of existence: Death, Freedom, Existential Isolation, and Meaning/Meaninglessness. I will then go on to discuss Meursault’s responsibility (guilt) throughout the novel. Finally I will discuss the interaction between Meursault and the Chaplain and it’s significance. In â€Å"The Stranger† Meursault embodies all of the six existential themes. The first existential theme is freedom. Freedom means that whatever happened†¦show more content†¦Meursault displays this theme at the very end of part one of the novel. Meursault is so content with walking back down to the spring unaware that he is going to end up destroying his happiness by shooting the Arab. This is a very unpredictable event because Meursault is just so happy and content with the sun shining on him, then all of a sudden something unexpected happens and his happiness is gone. â€Å"I knew that I had shattered the harmony of the day, the exceptional silence of a beach where I’d been happy.† (Page 59). The fifth theme is individuality. An individual is a single unique member of a collectivity. Meursault lives out his individuality. The strongest display of individuality is at the very end of the novel when Meursault wants a large crowd of people to witness his death, and he also wants them to greet him with cries of hate. â€Å"I had only wish that there be a large crowd of spectators the day of my execution and that they greet me with cries of hate.† (Page 123). By being hated Meursault retains his individuality, because if Meursault goes out there begging for forgiveness he would just become a member of a collectivity. The final theme is reflection. The term Reflection refers to the capacity to bring that which we are unaware of into awareness. Meursault leads a pre-reflective life. He goes through his day to day events and is so absorbed in each moment that he never reflects on them. Meursault does this until heShow MoreRelatedJudgment in Peter Shaffers Equus and Albert Camus The Stranger1160 Words   |  5 PagesAlbert Camus’ The Stranger, though internal in the first and external in the latter, mirrors society’s judgment of those who differ from the norm. The two postmodernist authors both use judgment as a tool to promote the postmodern idea that society oppresses and criticizes people who are not like everyone else. Camus and Shaffer place specific motifs and elements into their novels in order to push the idea of societal judgment on the reader. However, while the ideas may be the same, Camus and ShafferRead MoreEssay on The Caracter of Meursault in The Stranger (The Outsider)1136 Words   |  5 PagesThe Caracter of Meursault in The Str anger      Ã‚   Albert Camus The Stranger is a startling novel at worst and a haunting classic at best. Camus presents a thrilling story of a man devoid of emotion, even regarding the most sensitive, personal matters. The main character, Meursault shows no feelings after the death of his mother, during his romantic relationship with Marie, or during his trial for the murder of an Arab. Meursault never shows feelings of love, regret, remorse, or sadnessRead MoreAn Analysis Of Albert CamusThe Stranger765 Words   |  4 PagesMisa Arima Period5 The Stranger Essay In the novel The Stranger, author Albert Camus uses the character Meursault to argue that happiness can only be achieved through ones ability to sufficiently react to what Heidegger calls Thrown-ness, and, if conscious with the exercise of the free will, only then life will be worthwhile. First of all, knowing that life occurs randomly that have no control of, leads to the happier life. In The Myth of Sisyphus written by Albert Camus, the protagonist SisyphusRead MoreThe Stranger By Albert Camus1411 Words   |  6 PagesThe novel The Stranger, written by Albert Camus, encompasses contemporary philosophies of existentialism and absurdism. Existentialist and absurdist philosophies entail principles regarding that one’s identity is not based on nature or culture, but rather by sole existence. The role of minor characters in The Stranger helps to present Camus’s purpose to convey absurdist and existentialist principles. The characters of Salamano and Marie are utilized in order to contrast the author’s ideas about contemporaryRead MoreAlberts Aimless Absurdity898 Words   |  4 PagesIn Albert Camus’ novella, The Stranger, he exposes his beliefs on absurdism through the narration of Meursault. Camus’ definition of absurdism is a philos ophy based on the belief that the universe is illogical and meaningless. Camus, founder of absurdism and French Nobel Prize winning author, sends the reader his underlying theme that life is meaningless and has no ulti-mate significance. This underlying theme of life’s absurdity is extremely personal to Camus through his own individual experiencesRead MoreDefinition Of Absurdism In The Stranger By Albert Camus1490 Words   |  6 Pagesphilosopher Albert Camus once supported the philosophical belief by saying an individuals should embrace the absurd condition of human existence while also defiantly continuing to explore and search for meaning (Albert Camus). Camus is known for voicing his beliefs about absurdism and even including its in his work, most notably in The Stranger where he portrays the protagonist. Meursault as strange, insensitive, and indifferent. In the translated work The Stranger, the author Albert Camus uses dictationRead MoreMortality in the Stranger by Al bert Camus Essay example967 Words   |  4 PagesEveryone will die. Meursault’s awareness of death contributes to his nonchalant attitude toward every death he witness or must endure in The Stranger. Death fails to upset Meursault. In The Stranger, Albert Camus emphasizes mortality in order to expose the ignorance humanity has towards the inevitable or unknown end. Camus’s emphasis on time accentuates Meursault’s indifference. This indifference reveals that death occurs inevitably, regardless of time. The first thought that the audience readsRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Stranger Essay1618 Words   |  7 Pages‘Arab’?† muses Harun, the narrator of Kamel Daoud’s The Meursault Investigation (Daoud 138). Daoud’s novel is full of questions and ramblings such as this one that serve as a response to Albert Camus’ The Stranger, which explores the trial of a French Algerian (Meursault) for killing an Arab man. In The Stranger, Camus fails to name the Arab victim and gives him no backstory nor significant reason for the cause of his murder. In The Meursault Investigation, Daoud gives the dead Arab a name: Musa.Read MoreOf Mice And Men And The Stranger Analysis831 Words   |  4 Pages Of Mice And Men And The Stranger In the novel Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck, the brotherhood and the characters work together to fulfill a dream. George and Lennie are hard working men looking for a job and they are dedicated to get their own land. George and Lennie have faith in succeeding, dreaming about what they are going to do in the near future. While In â€Å"The Strangers† by Albert Camus, human existence in life does not matter. Meursault acts like he doesn’t really have a lifeRead MoreComparison of Camus and Dostoevsky Essays1467 Words   |  6 PagesRaskolnikov-A â€Å"Stranger† to Mersault? Though written by completely different authors in completely different times and places, the works The Stranger and Crime and Punishment show many similarities in the actions and views of the protagonists. Raskolnikov and Meursault show similarities through their existentialist views of life, actions towards others, and wanting of escape from the real world or conscience world. These character similarities suggest similarities in the views of the two authors

Friday, December 20, 2019

Declaration Of Independence And Enlightenment - 1064 Words

The Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man are two documents that sate the people are ending a relationship with their monarch. One of the two documents led to a successful revolution, the other was the beginning of a reign of terror. Both of these revolutions began with a group of people talking about enlightenment ideas. Enlightenment Ideas are when people begin to start to think that they can rule themselves and not have to have a king. Some Enlightenment ideas include: freedom of religion, the ability to make and pass laws, the ability to vote on what happens in court, the idea of a jury at a trial and not just a judge. All of the ideas mentioned above are some causes of these two major revolutions. The†¦show more content†¦King Louis XVI and Marie Antionette were two people that should not have been ruling a country. King Louis was always gone on hunting trips and Marie Antionette spent every dime of French money. Once the Monarchy ran out money, they started to tax the Third, and poorest, estate. The third estate took up 97% of the population. 97% of the population was starving and the royal family kept spending large amounts of money until the people revolted. The people of France tried to reason with King Louis, but he refused to change his ways and kept taxing the third estate. When the people revolted, they stormed the Bastille and took all of the weapons they could. The people then went to the King’s palace and demanded he fix the way he was ruling before they killed him. The King didn’t listen and was executed along with his wife. Of the three kids that Marie Antionette had, the two boys died of Tuberculosis in jail and the daughter was sent to liv e the remainder of her life in exile in Austria. It may seem as though the people of France had successfully overgrown their monarchy and could begin a life of freedom, however this is not the case. The French had rushed into combat too fast and did not have a plan for what to do after they had killed their rulers. The right of Terror begins where Maximilian Robespierre beheads 40,000 people in the span of ten months for speaking against the revolution. In the end, Robespierre ends up gettingShow MoreRelatedThe Ideas Of The Enlightenment, By Thomas Paine And The Declaration Of Independence767 Words   |  4 PagesThe ideas of the Enlightenment spread to the American colonies, profoundly influencing leaders of the Revolution to create a new structure of government. Enlightenment, as defined in Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, can be broadly defined is the movement towards reason and individualism rather than tradition. The text, by Thomas Paine, challenged the principles of liber ty, equality, and justice. Thomas Paine was a revolutionary thinker who used Enlightenment ideology as a platform to persuade towardsRead MoreIdeas from the Enlightenment in the Declaration of Independence and the Consitution607 Words   |  2 PagesDuring the Enlightenment period, it was the age of reason. Where people understood and viewed things differently. However, centuries later from that time period (1700s) both America and France incorporated and reflected various enlightenment ideas and formed it into several documents such as the Bill of rights, Declaration of Independence both America and France, and the Constitution. These Enlightenment thinkers believed in our natural rights, our equality, and our freedom of speech, expressionRead MoreEssay on Epitome of Enlightenment 1232 Words   |  5 PagesThe Enlightenment, rooted in late 17th century European philosophy, was based on the concept of applying scientific principles of logic and reasoning to all endeavors of life. Having become established in America by the mid-18th century, Enlightenment principles were practiced by many of the most notable â€Å"fathers† of the American Revolution. The American Declaration of Independence, written in 1776 is one of the most significant examples of a document whose writing was motivated by enlightenment principlesRead MoreThe Enlightenment Principles Of Rationalism And Universal Rights1684 Words   |  7 PagesThe Enlightenment period was a revolutionary time where scientific and rational thought became the chief values of society. Thinkers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were signposts of this era, inspiring populations locally and abroad. This revolution of ideas led to political and societal upheaval throughout the Western world. This essay will argue that the Enlightenment principles of rationalism and universal rights shaped modern Europe and North America through the rejection of absolutistRead MoreClassical Liberalism: Two Trea tises on Government by John Locke1152 Words   |  5 PagesLiberalism, the Enlightenment, was a political movement that has impacted countries and their policies over many generations. The Enlightenment emphasized the notion that men are inherently good by nature (Bentley). The Enlightenment gave people the idea that a king was not necessary to rule over the people because people are not inherently bad. If anything, the people need someone to guide them but not have absolute rule over them. Revolutions have been based off of Enlightenment ideals because theyRead MoreThe Beginning Of The Year1524 Words   |  7 PagesThe European Enlightenment was a time where philosophers began to ponder upon the ideas of democracies and how freedom and equality could change the world for the better. The American Revolution was sparked by the ideas of The Enlightenment, and that was only the beginning of America’s fight for a democracy, all thanks to the ideas of the European Enlightenment. The European Enlightenment helped to shape the world’s society in political, social, and historical ways. The Enlightenment caused many revolutionsRead MoreJean-Jacques Rousseau Influence on the Declaration of Independence743 Words   |  3 PagesThe Declaration of Independence is the foundation of America. It contains â€Å"the words that made America,† (Fink, 9). Five of the founding fathers got together and penned this important document. As they penned this document, they were inspired by a number of European philosophers and writers. One of these philosophers was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. â€Å"Jean-Jacques Rousseau played a significant role in three different revolutions: in politics, his work inspired and shaped revolutionary sentiment inRead MoreReligious, Social, Philosophical, And Political Upheaval1394 Words   |  6 PagesWestern nations such as England, France, and Spain, religious tensions persisted from power struggles between Catholicism and Protestantism throughout the 1600s. However, while governments remained entrenched in organized religion at a state lev el, Enlightenment ideas emphasizing human reason brought about a new epistemological ideology, called deism (Duiker, 463). While this previously unfamiliar philosophy failed to replace the dominant Protestant or Catholic religions of established nations, revolutionistRead MoreThe British Enlightenment And The American Revolution1538 Words   |  7 PagesThe American Revolution was a product of the British Enlightenment as well as both American and British history. The Enlightenment was age of innovation taking place during the 17th and 18th centuries. During this period there were great advancements in science that pushed back religious superstitions, as well as developments in economics and political thinking. (lecture) The British Enlightenment specifically had a large impact on the American Revolution with key figures such as John Locke. HisRead MoreThe Enlightenment Theory Of John Locke1627 Words   |  7 PagesThe Enlightenment theory philosophies of John Locke offered a futu re that could drastically change government, economic and social ideals. Thomas Jefferson borrowed liberally from the enlightenment theory from John Locke, specifically focusing on Locks theories of the equality of men, natural rights, and that people should have a say on how the government treated people. Jefferson created a draft document created a bold experiment, America. The enlightenment philosophy of John Locke theorized that

Wednesday, December 11, 2019

Performance Management and Contribution to the Organization

Question: Discuss about the Performance Management and Contribution to the Organization. Answer: Introduction: Performancemanagement has acquired substantial significance in the recent times owing to the planning, monitoring and review of employees in context of their overall contribution to the organization and their professional objectives. It has enabled managers as well as employees to coordinate with each other and explore cognizable opportunities directed not only towards evaluation of performance but also for the motivation and engagement of employees through approaches such as goal setting and feedback approaches (Ayers, 2013). The process is helpful for alignment of individual behaviour with organizational objectives, addressing the requirement of feedback for employees and improvement of work environment. The concerns for performancemanagement are distinct in varying sectors thereby enforcing on the requirement of varying approaches to determine the capabilities of employees to address organizational objectives. Performance management issues in charity organizations: The non-profit or charity sector is also subject to the issues of performancemanagement primarily related to the formulation and implementation of an appropriate framework for performance management. According to Bednall, Sanders Runhaar, the challenges pertaining to performancemanagement which are profoundly observed in the excerpts from interactions with proficient personnel in the non-profit sector include the culture, ambiguities pertaining to time and resource allocation, role of voluntary board, conventional performance management models and the prominence of culture in non-profit organizations (Bednall, Sanders Runhaar, 2014). The selection of the practical case of an Australian charity organization would be implicative of explicit references to the competence profiling requirements. The consideration of CARE Australia for accomplishing the competence profiling objectives would have to be preceded by the anticipation of challenges. Culture is aligned with the egalitarian values which support a flat organizational structure in non-profit organizations. Therefore employees and managers are more likely to perceive performance management as a traditional process involving command and control implying the creation of a situation opposing the values held by employees and enforcement of bureaucratic or hierarchical principles. Establishment of voluntary boards within CARE Australia should be accompanied with the competence necessary for accomplishing performance management (Budworth, Latham Manroop, 2015). The skills and experience of the board members could be perceived as a major disparity by employees thereby leading to inefficient outcomes from the performance management strategies. The lack of resources, competences and time is perceived as a major implication in context of the implementation of performance management approaches. Small organizations emphasize front-line operations rather than emphasizing on the performance management implications which create considerable challenges in the non-profit sector. As per Deepa, Palaniswamy Kuppusamy, the conventional methods for performance measurement are associated with quantitative evaluation which is not relevant to the qualitative dimensions of performance especially related to the interaction and quality of relationships among individual (Deepa, Palaniswamy Kuppusamy, 2014). The lack of precise norms that would help in estimation of approaches to management of employee performance could also be accounted as a formidable challenge with respect to the case of non profit organizations. The organizational background of CARE Australia is profoundly vested in the gradual development of the charity organization in almost 20 countries in the pacific region and Africa. According to DeNisi Smith, the objectives of CARE Australia are directed towards addressing the plight of young girls and women since the vision of the organization is aligned with the belief that these groups are essential for the integral development of sustainable communities across the world (DeNisi Smith, 2014). Therefore the organization must evaluate the distinct approaches required to evaluate the performance of its workforce especially through an emphasis on the competence based approach that is more likely to encourage motivation among the employees as well. Competency modelling: Competency can be defined as the singular behaviour or set of behaviours that reflects on the description of excellent performance especially in context of a particular work environment. The demarcation between average and poor performers is largely based on the identification of profound issues especially with respect to the clarification of workplace expectations and standards, creation of empowerment and accountability of employers, team members and team leaders, development of reasonable and specific decisions for compensation and appraisal and the alignment of individuals with the business strategies of the organization. The difference between skills and competences can be depicted in the association of competences solely with behaviours that accompany superior performance (Elliott, 2015). The competences should not only be aligned with the work objectives but also inclined towards behavioural orientations with respect to the motives for accomplishing work objectives. The implications of competency model organization can be considered here which has been derived from the literature pertaining to performance management. According to Grigoroudis, Tsitsiridi Zopounidis, the use of competency models has been profoundly observed in the case of opportunities to support various practices that include employee development, team assessment, career strategies, employee orientation, succession planning candidate interviews, performance management and coaching and team assessment. The derivation of specific competences for varying sectors is dependent on the presentation of competences along with key behavioural indicators and precise definition (Grigoroudis, Tsitsiridi Zopounidis, 2013). Evaluation of the competences is based on the Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) which are indicative of the performance of employees from a qualitative viewpoint. The benefits of implementing a competency based approach can be observed in the reinforcement of corporate culture, strategy and vision, increasing effectiveness of professional development and training programs for the company based practices. Managerial benefits of competence modelling would involve ease for the managers of CARE Australia, a non-profit organization, to ensure flexible hiring and selection processes (Iqbal, Akbar Budhwar, 2015). Clarification of standards pertaining to communication could be a potential attribute for inhibiting the effect of possible friction against performance management approaches as command and control processes. Employees could obtain an objective and specific assessment of strengths thereby creating opportunities for identifying specific areas for professional development. Competence evaluation: As per John Bernardin, et al, the various types of clustering available for evaluation of competences reflect on the distribution such as core competencies, leadership competences and technical competences. These competences have to be apprehended distinctly by the case of CARE Australia thereby reflecting on the different outcomes that can be impinged on the sustainability of the organization (John Bernardin, et al., 2015). The core competences are associated with the competences required for foundation of the organization without any formidable concerns for the function. The core competences are associated directly with the strategic objectives of the organization and are largely vested in the organizational vision, values, culture and mission of the organization (Kinicki, et al., 2013). Therefore the uniqueness of core competences of CARE Australia can be defined on the basis of distinctiveness of the above described elements. The core competences which could be observed in the case of CARE Australia could be identified in the exemplification of integrity, problem solving and decision making, delivery of service excellence and demonstration of personal effectiveness. According to Sanyal Biswas, functional competences or technical competences have a substantial implication towards abilities or behaviour that can be related to a particular body of skills and knowledge required for accomplishing specific objectives. Functional competences are considerably associated with the job roles and the interaction with other job roles and are distinct for individual personnel and job positions (Sanyal Biswas, 2014). Managerial and leadership competences have to be considered as significant entries in the performance management functions and processes since they are associated with skills, knowledge and behaviour of managers and other individuals responsible for realization of leadership functions and processes. One of the formidable advantages that can be noticed in case of the competence evaluation initiatives is reflective of the selection of specific clusters for competence modelling. It has been observed in different schools of thought where competency modelling was based on clustering of competencies into behavioural and technical categories (Sharma, Sharma Agarwal, 2016). Technical competences or hard competences are generally identified with respect to the job while those that are not related to the field of practice are referred to as soft competencies or behavioural competencies. Therefore the competency framework of CARE Australia must include references to behavioural, organizational and personal competences that can prove to be a guideline for increasing motivation of employees alongside facilitating a viable apparatus for realizing professional Performance Appraisal Programs (Slavi?, Berber Lekovi?, 2014). Dimensions of competence progression: The performance appraisals on the basis of a competency based approach could be associated with the variables of intensity, time horizon, complexity, autonomy, context, breadth of impact and scope. These dimensions are imperative requirements for evaluating the progression level of competences proposed in models for CARE Australia. Time horizon is a considerably favourable factor that allows the consideration of anticipating future situations for actions and decision making as well as observing the future incidents as well as planning. Intensity of the competencies is evaluated on the grounds of effort for completion of a task. Breadth of impact is reflected through the number of individuals and the job descriptions of the affected individuals by the competences as well as the nature of problems resolved by the competences (Sumelius, et al., 2014). The variable of complexity associated with competence assessment is reflective of the estimation of the multitude of people, concepts, things, causes and data into account. Scope can be validated on the grounds of the variation in responsibilities as well as tasks pertaining to organizational assignments. The context dimension of the competencies can be observed in the environment provided to the various units of CARE Australia. The dimension of autonomy is a formidable indicator of the level of supervision that is acquired by employees and the decision making power of individual members of the organization (Teelken, 2015). Key performance indicators: The use of key performance indicators can be associated with promising implications towards the generic characteristics of proficiency levels and behavioural indicators. Proficiency levels are associated with the resolution of a wide assortment of objectives and they provide a comparative interpretation of the jobs and roles especially in terms of competency requirements and the levels of proficiency required in specific job roles. The development of the proficiency levels is ensured through a commonly accepted incremental scale that is reflective of generic classification of competency performance of employees on different levels (Sharma, Sharma Agarwal, 2016). Proficiency levels are clear substrates for framing organization specific performance indicators and are associated with the planning, tracking and implementation of development initiatives of various job holders alongside prolific references to the existing or future jobs and professional roles associated with distinct mastery levels. The references to the use of five scales of proficiency levels is profoundly observed in case of many organizations, while CARE Australia could implement four levels of analyzing proficiency level in the performance appraisal program. The competency model dictates the levels on the basis of the users as well as the objectives pertaining to practicality and purpose (Iqbal, Akbar Budhwar, 2015). The selection of four levels for proficiency assessment could be associated with the potential refraining from the confusions arising due to trivial differences in multiple proficiency levels. Assessment of competency with the use of four levels is also beneficial as it prevents the probabilities of statistical central tendencies. Studies of competences could also be associated with promising HR planning and functional objectives that are otherwise associated with capturing the competency frame and the proficiency levels that are needed for a successful job performance for all levels of job roles in CARE Australia (John Bernardin, et al., 2015). The explicitness of job description is a promising resource for the HR management of the organization to ensure compliance of the potential candidates with the particular descriptions laid out for individual job role. Some of the general competences which are evaluated in case of non-profit job descriptions refer to the collaboration and networking skills, delivery of results, problem solving and decision making skills, performance management, motivation and inspiring capabilities, information management and utilization. The general perception of almost 12 competences should be outlined specifically in the competency model of CARE Australia that can help in refining the outcomes of hiring and selection thereby reducing the impact of excessive pressure on the performance appraisal programs (Sharma, Sharma Agarwal, 2016). Behavioural indicators have also been associated with literature pertaining to the different impacts of developing competences. The references to the behavioural indicators can also be a profound indicator of the development of proficiency level according to the competence category. Conclusion: The report presented an interpretation of possible recommendations for an Australian charity organization, CARE Australia, to realize the application of a competency model to formulate a performance appraisal program. The reflection on the necessity to develop performance management frameworks can be observed profoundly in the evolving trends and the challenges faced by the non-profit sector organizations. Explicit references to the use of competency modelling and key performance indicator assessment proved to be comprehensive elements of the report. References Ayers RS. Building goal alignment in federal agencies performance appraisal programs. Public Personnel Management. 2013 Dec;42(4):495-520. Bednall TC, Sanders K, Runhaar P. Stimulating informal learning activities through perceptions of performance appraisal quality and human resource management system strength: A two-wave study. Academy of Management Learning Education. 2014 Mar 1;13(1):45-61. Budworth MH, Latham GP, Manroop L. Looking forward to performance improvement: A field test of the feedforward interview for performance management. Human Resource Management. 2015 Jan 1;54(1):45-54. Deepa E, Palaniswamy R, Kuppusamy S. Effect of performance appraisal system in organizational commitment, job satisfaction and productivity. Journal of Contemporary Management Research. 2014 Mar 1;8(1):72. DeNisi A, Smith CE. Performance appraisal, performance management, and firm-level performance: a review, a proposed model, and new directions for future research. Academy of Management Annals. 2014 Jan 1;8(1):127-79. Elliott K. Teacher Performance Appraisal: More about Performance or Development?. Australian Journal of Teacher Education. 2015;40(9):6. Grigoroudis E, Tsitsiridi E, Zopounidis C. Linking customer satisfaction, employee appraisal, and business performance: an evaluation methodology in the banking sector. Annals of Operations Research. 2013 May 1;205(1):5-27. Iqbal MZ, Akbar S, Budhwar P. Effectiveness of performance appraisal: An integrated framework. International Journal of Management Reviews. 2015 Oct 1;17(4):510-33. John Bernardin H, Thomason S, Ronald Buckley M, Kane JS. Rater Rating?Level Bias and Accuracy in Performance Appraisals: The Impact OF Rater Personality, Performance Management Competence, and Rater Accountability. Human Resource Management. 2015 Jan 1. Kinicki AJ, Jacobson KJ, Peterson SJ, Prussia GE. Development and validation of the performance management behavior questionnaire. Personnel Psychology. 2013 Mar 1;66(1):1-45. Sanyal MK, Biswas SB. Employee motivation from performance appraisal implications: Test of a theory in the software industry in West Bengal (India). Procedia Economics and Finance. 2014 Jan 1;11:182-96. Sharma NP, Sharma T, Agarwal MN. Measuring employee perception of performance management system effectiveness: Conceptualization and scale development. Employee Relations. 2016 Feb 8;38(2):224-47. Slavi? A, Berber N, Lekovi? B. Performance management in international human resource management: evidence from the CEE region. Serbian journal of management. 2014;9(1):45-58. Sumelius J, Bjrkman I, Ehrnrooth M, Mkel K, Smale A. What determines employee perceptions of HRM process features? The case of performance appraisal in MNC subsidiaries. Human Resource Management. 2014 Jul 1;53(4):569-92. Teelken C. Hybridity, coping mechanisms, and academic performance management: Comparing three countries. Public Administration. 2015 Jun 1;93(2):307-23.

Wednesday, December 4, 2019

Stuttering and Speech free essay sample

Stuttering Stuttering is a speech pattern that contains an abnormally high frequency or duration of disruptions in the forward flow of speech affecting its continuity, rhythm, rate, and effortfulness. A disruption in speech is called a disfluency. We all have disfluencies in our speech, such as â€Å"uh†, â€Å"um†, pausing, or rewording, but it is only considered stuttering when we are disfluent more than ten percent of the time. The Essentials of Stuttering Fluency is the effortless flow of speech. There are four parts to fluency: continuity, rate, rhythm, and effort. Stuttering affects all four parts. Continuity is the smoothness of speech.It is decreased by how often and where pauses happen in speech and by how many extra sounds are added. Rate is how fast or slow speech is, and is measured by words or syllables spoken per minute. The rate of information and sound flow is too slow for people who stutter. That is why it can be harder to listen to them. Rhythm is the pattern of speech and it depends on intonation, stress pattern, timing, and duration. People who stutter have disruptions that are louder, longer, and slightly higher pitched. This is what makes disfluencies more noticeable. Lastly, effort is how much mental or physical work it takes to talk. Normal speech is not effortful. It takes people who stutter more effort to talk. It takes mental effort to think ahead of time about what words won’t make you stutter and it takes physical effort to stop or escape from a stutter. Stuttering affects many children as they learn to speak. This is called developmental stuttering. Young children may stutter when their speech and language abilities aren’t developed enough to keep up with what they want to say. Most children outgrow developmental stuttering, often within four years. About three quarters or more of very young children who stutter are prone to recover without any form of treatment.Stuttering usually begins at a time when the child is integrating speech and language skills within a changing physical and neurological makeup during a dynamic expansion of communication demands, personal interactions, and situational experiences. Some children begin stuttering as soon as they begin combining words, but this is not very common. Most do not start until approximately one year later, around the age of two or three. About ninety percent of children who stutter begin to do so before the age of six. Stuttering can begin either suddenly, intermediately, or gradually.The progression of stuttering severity is often episodic, containing oscillations that range from no stuttering to mild to severe across time. Influences: Factors that may Contribute to the Development of Stuttering Family dynamics can have an influence. Some examples of these factors include parental attitudes and expectations, the child’s speech and language environment, and stressful life events. This does not mean that the parents are doing anything wrong. Often these things are not harmful to a child that doesn’t stutter, but can aggravate stuttering in a child that has a tendency to stutter.Other’s reactions to stuttering are a big problem. Often people don’t know how to react. They are awkwardly caught off guard, or they can’t wait for the person who stutters to finish what they are saying. There are good reasons to believe that those who stutter have expectancies of social harm. Research suggests that those who stutter differ from control subjects in their expectation of negative social evaluation. While these peer reactions do have an impact on stuttering, it is unknown whether social anxiety mediates stuttering or is a simple by-product of stuttering.Developmental factors are believed to be a contributing factor. During the preschool years, a child’s physical, cognitive, social/emotional, and speech/language skills are developing at a very rapid rate. This rapid development can lead to stuttering in children who are predisposed to it. This is why stuttering often begins during the preschool years. For a long period, information on the genetic aspect of stuttering was primarily based on data concerning the percept of people who stutter having relatives with histories of stuttering. This figure has varied in the past from 20% to 74%.The most recent research shows that approximately 60% of children who stutter have a family member who does also, or who used to stutter as a child. Although it is apparent that stuttering runs in families, this fact, in-and-by itself, is insufficient to conclude genetic underlining (Yairi). Professionals know that there is a disruption of speech fluency associated with stuttering that is reflected by actual differences in the structure and function of the brain. It is not known, however, if these neurological differences are the cause of the result of stuttering (or both).Research done shows physical differences in several brain areas associated with speech and language skills. Such results may indicate that theses physical differences create competing commands that may interfere with fluent speech. However, and alternate view is that these neurological differences may develop in stutterers during early childhood due to the child’s attempts to voluntarily control or monitor disfluencies (Ramig Dodge). Theories About Stuttering First is the diagnosogenic theory.This says that stuttering happens when a child becomes overly sensitive to typical disfluencies, which every child has, because of someone’s reactions. As a result, he tries hard to avoid being disfluent or â€Å"messing up† again. According to this theory, stuttering is in the listener’s ear, not the child’s mouth. The communicative failure and anticipatory struggle theory says that stuttering happens because of early experiences, such as the reactions of listeners and the environment, which made the child thing that speech is hard, and they trigger the child to s tutter. For example, if the child has a hard time talking, he may become tense, and break up his speech. Then the core stuttering behaviors soon become a part of the speech pattern that the child learns to dread. This theory says that stuttering is learned, and both internal and external influences play a part. The capacities and demands theory says that children who stutter are not able to handle the normal speech, language, and situational demands so fluency is lost and the child stutters. Motor skills, language skills, emotional maturity, and cognitive development are all needed to talk smoothly.If a child has to compete with others for a turn to talk, the child feels he has to talk fast so that you will listen to everything he has to say. This is an example of a motor demand. An example of a language demand is if a child has a high vocabulary or is trying to use big words while he talks. An emotional demand would be trying to talk while excited or upset. An example of a cognitive demand is if the child is talking with a lot of anxiety that he is going to stutter and be ashamed is he does. Last is the two-factor learning theory. This theory operates on classical conditioning.The speaker learns to associate speaking with a negative emotional response. According to this theory, stuttering is an automatic reaction to a learned stimulus. Somehow and easy, normal disfluency becomes paired with an event that makes the child become tense. From then on, a disfluency is tense (a stutter) even without the event. Some examples of what might trigger this are the child’s location during a stutter, sounds that occurred during a stutter, people or gender of persons listening to the stutter, talking on the phone during a stutter, and words or sounds said during a stutter.These things can all accidentally happen during a stutter, which gives these things the power to make a person stutter tensely when they happen again. Then, when the person who stutters does something on purpose to get out of the stutter, such as jerking their head or blinking their eyes, and the stutter stops, that behavior is now conditioned to stop a stutter in the person’s head. For example a child might think, â€Å"The phone rang while I was trying to talk to my friend this morning and I stuttered. The next time the phone rings while I am t alking, I will stutter† (Ducworth). The best way to understand stuttering is to talk all the theories and views of stuttering and combine them together into one perspective. What causes stuttering can be considered a complex interaction of five factors (CALMS): Cognitive, Affective, Linguistic, Motor, and Social. Genetic and physical factors are necessary, but they may not be sufficient to cause stuttering. The CALMS factors are needed as well (Mayo Clinic Staff). Difficulties for Children who Stutter Many people have functional lives and successful careers despite stuttering. Some famous people who stutter are Marilyn Monroe, Julia Roberts, Bruce Willis, and Tiger Woods.So, if that’s not enough proof that you can stutter and still be successful, then I don’t know what else is. There is no cure for stuttering, but speech therapy can help children learn techniques to help control their speech. Stuttering can, however, have a huge impact on a person’s self-esteem and confidence. Children who stutter often have anxiety, or nervousness, about talking, guilt, shame, fear, embarrassment, frustration, and negative attitudes towards speaking. These feelings can range from very mild and hardly impacting a person’s life to very severe and preventing the person who stutters from functioning socially at all.The negative feelings and attitudes can prevent a person who stutters from doing everyday things such as ordering food at a restaurant, speaking on the phone, or even speaking at all. These negative attitudes and feelings can stem from feeling out of control, concern and anxiety of parents, and teasing and rejection from other children, which can make stuttering worse and more often, cause avoidance behaviors, and make a person not willing to risk cha nge. It can also make it harder for improvements made in therapy to stick. Treating negative feelings and attitudes that accompany a stuttering disorder is a very important focus in therapy.These negative feelings can either make stuttering therapy harder because it requires the person to face and overcome them, or they can make it more successful because they empower and motivate the person to overcome stuttering. The bottom line is that they need to be treated and handled carefully. Time pressure is also one of the worst things from people who stutter and it is getting worse. Today’s world is very fast-paced and people are always trying to do things as quickly as possible. This time pressure is very common in our communication. When we talk to others and they don’t answer fast enough, we get impatient. We will start talking again or we assume the other person didn’t understand us. People who stutter feel this pressure to respond, plus they are stressed because they know that if they pause, the might have trouble getting started again. Advice for Teachers Stuttering is unique among the various disabilities because its severity may actually be aggravated and negative effects may increase as a result of participation in school. Because confirmed stuttering is developmental in nature, school experience may be a key ingredient in the development of severe stuttering.It is the child’s first, significant participation within organized social activity, in which the genetic predisposition to stutter is combined with environmental stressors. There are many warning signs to watch out for. First are multiple part-word repetitions. This refers to repeating the first or last sounds of a word, more than one or two times, faster than normal, or with irregular tempo. Second are prolongations. Prolongation refers to stretching out a sound at the beginning of or particularly within a word, such as â€Å"rrrrrrrrabit† or â€Å"raaaaaabit. It is important to distinguish easy stretches from prolongations associated with tension of struggle. Third is use of the reduced â€Å"schwa† vowel. Instead of saying â€Å"re-re-re-read† the child says â€Å"ruh-ruh-ruh-read. † This behavior indicates that the speech difficulty has become uncoupled from language and communication and is being felt as a performance struggle. It also indicates that the child has lost a measure of awareness due to the severity of the blocking experience. Fourth is blocking. Blocking refers to stopping or getting stuck before or during the production of a sound or word.Blocks may be anticipated as the person approaches a word, or blocking may be used to close down the system so as to draw less attention to the stuttering movement. Fifth is struggle and tension. Increased muscular tension of the articulators accompanies stuttering that has developed to the point where intervention is indicated. To overcome this tension, the child recruits additional surrounding muscles and muscle groups in an attempt to overcome the feeling of blockage. Struggle and tension may be seen in the nose, jaw, neck, cheeks, lips, forehead, and upper chest.Sixth is pitch, rate, and loudness increase. These phenomena often occur on prolongation of sounds, when the child is struggling to break out of a block and proceed to the next sound. The child may anticipate or feel that he is going to have difficulty on the sound and uses the pitch or loudness rise as a way to force his way through the block. Seventh is disturbed of irregular breathing. Upon anticipating stuttering, the child may hold his breath, take several breaths, or display other types of erratic or irregular breathing patterns, such as trying to rapidly say lots of words per breath group.Eighth is movement of other body parts. When experiencing one or more of the other warning signs, the child may jerk his head forward or back, move his arm, leg, or hand, or attempt other unusual behavior as he expects to stutter or actually experiences the moment of stuttering. Tenth is avoidance of talking. Stuttering is usually hard for teachers to notice because kids who stutter tend to avoid talking as much as possible. All preschool children are busily learning to talk. As such, they make speech mistakes.Some children have more than others, and this is normal. There might be certain children who have many disfluencies-most commonly repeating words and prolongation of sounds. These are quite noticeable to listeners. If you are concerned that there may be a problem of stuttering developing with one of these children, don’t pay any special attention to the child at this point. Rather, talk to a speech pathologist for suggestions. Also, talk to the parents about their opinion of the problem so that you know whether this is typical speech behavior for him.In most instances, if parents, teachers, and others listen to and answer the child in a patient, calm, and unemotional way, the child’s speech returns to normal as his language abilities and his adjustments to school improve. If the child continues to have disfluencies, however, you may want to ask a speech pathologist to observe him. There are children in elementary school who not only repeat and prolong sounds markedly, but also struggle and become tense and frustrated in their efforts to talk. They need help. Without it, their stuttering problem will probably adversely affect their classroom performance.As suggested with the preschool child, consult with a speech pathologist as well as with the parents and discuss your observations with them. If you, the parents, and the speech pathologist agree that this child’s disfluencies are different from other children in your classroom, you may decide as a team to evaluate the child for stuttering. Usually it is advisable for you to talk with the child privately. Explain to him that when talking—just like when learning other skills—we sometimes make mistakes. We bobble sounds or repeat or get tangled up on words. With practice we improve.Explain that you are his teacher and that his stuttering is okay with you. By talking to the child in this way, you help him learn that you are aware of his stuttering and that you accept it—and him. As you are asking questions in the classroom, you can do certain things to make it easier for a child who stutters. Initially, until he adjusts to the class, ask him questions that can be answered with relatively few words. If every child is going to be asked a question, call on the child who stutters fairly early. Tension and worry can build up the longer he has to wait his turn. Assure the whole class that they will have as much time as they need to answer questions, and that you are interested in having them take time and think through their answers, not just answer quickly. Many children who stutter are able to handle oral reading tasks in the classroom satisfactorily, particularly if they are encouraged to practice at home. There will be some, however, who will stutter severely while reading aloud in class. Most children who stutter are fluent when reading in unison with someone else. Rather than not calling on the child who stutters, let him have his turn with of the other children.Let the whole class read in pairs sometimes so that the child who stutters doesn’t feel special. Gradually he may become more confident and be able to manage reading out loud on his own. Teasing can be very painful for the student who stutters, and it should be eliminated as far as possible. If the child has obviously been upset by teasing, talk with him or her one-on-one. Help the child to understand why others tease, and brainstorm ideas for how to respond. If there are any certain children picking on him, talk to them alone and explain that teasing is unacceptable.